Second and third centuries

• By end 1^st cent., Lord’s Supper known as Eucharist
• Only baptized could take Eucharist
• By 215 AD, already had prayer for Holy Spirit to change the bread and wine to body and blood of Christ; Eucharist seen as sacrifice

Transubstantiation

• From 4^th cent. interest grew in question of when Christ became present in Eucharist
• ‘Moment of consecration’ came to be seen as the time when priest repeated ‘This is my body’
• So heart of service was reduced to a few words that worked mystic change
• By 9^th cent. question of how Christ was present in elements; answered in terms of miraculous
• Outward appearance unchanged but original substance of bread changed to body of Christ
• Radbertus (818) said changed into literal body born of Mary
• Ratramnus opposed saying this confuses sign with thing signified, and it replaces faith with gross materialism
• Schoolmen, using Aristotle, spoke of substance which is reality, and accidents which are characteristics perceived by senses
• So when bread is consecrated, the underlying reality (substance) is changed into the body of Christ, even though it stays bread (accidents)
• The substance of anything cannot be perceived by senses, only grasped by intellect
• Though disputed, the idea was dogmatized by 4^th Lateran Council (1215) and called Transubstantiation
• Then communion became ‘one kind’ i.e. bread only for laity; only priest allowed to take both kinds
• Now becomes adoration of host, rather than communion

Luther

• Luther’s initial concern was with justification by faith, not with worship reform
• Accepted sacraments were a means of grace
• Objected to mass as a propitiatory sacrifice
• No merit could be obtained by performing a mass
• 1523 he revised mass – retained vestments and use of Latin
• Retained elevation of bread – so that worshippers could participate, at least by looking
• Stressed communion with participation in both kinds
• 1525 he issued his German Mass – a folk mass to educate unlearned
• Rejected transubstantiation but stressed Christ’s ubiquity – Christ is truly present in his full nature in the Eucharist
• This was the heart of the matter for Luther
• As he was influenced by the philosophy of his day, he asked ‘how is Christ present?’
• Said that presence can be in 3 ways
  1. something occupies or vacates space e.g. a ball in water
  2. something penetrates space e.g. light or heat in water
  3. something fills all spaces but contained by none i.e. God

• Jesus is present in sacrament in all 3 ways – but elements not changed
• He is fully present in the bread but the bread is still bread – he is ‘in, with and under’ the bread….
• ….Elements have not become Christ’s body and blood, his body and blood have been added to elements
• ….Thus he insisted on manducation – not merely spiritual reception but a real taking of Christ into our body – we eat himNot clear on benefits of sacrament….
• ….On one hand he says when we partake of sacrament we obtain forgiveness of sin and confirmation of faith
• On the other, he says the benefit is due, not to the sacrament but reception of the word by faith
• However he did regard Lord’s Supper as a sacrament, and by partaking we receive spiritual benefit we otherwise wouldn’t have

Zwingli

• Lord’s Supper a visual aid; memorial that spoke of Christ’s grace and forgiveness
• Rejected ‘ubiquity’ – said Christ present at the meal but not in it
• Strong emphasis on role of sacrament in bringing to mind the death of Christ and its efficacy on believer’s behalf
• Thus only a commemoration of Christ’s death
• Had Lord’s Supper celebrated 4 times a year
• Preaching had dominant place in weekly services
• Ordinances mean nothing without faith
• Later moved to a more spiritual presence in reaction to Anabaptists
• Christ’s present body not eaten naturally but spiritually, i.e. equivalent to trusting with heart and soul upon the mercy and goodness of God
• It is as powerful as meditating on the truths of the gospel

Calvin

• Sacraments a means of grace – rejected ‘ubiquity’
• Attitude of participant primary if Eucharist to be properly received
• Christ is in heaven in his resurrected body
• Body of Christ cannot be ‘under’ the elements
• Therefore Holy Spirit, like rays of the sun, necessary for communion of Christ’s flesh and blood
• As we take elements we should lift hearts and minds to where Jesus is, in heaven; we are thus carried to heaven
• Word and sacrament inseparably linked – sacrament must be accompanied by preaching to explain it
• Word makes Lord’s Supper efficacious

Catholic Church

• Council of Trent (1545-1563) responded to Reformers by affirming with anathemas, role of hierarchical priesthood, Mass as a propitiatory sacrifice, and transubstantiation

Transignification

• Schillebeekx – piece of cloth only decorative until invested with value by calling it a flag